Top Endurance

The athlete begins in a hip-width stance, holding the bar with a closed, pronated grip. He holds the bar in front of the body, touching the thighs. The scapulae are tightly squeezed together. The athlete lowers the bar to just above the knee by pushing the hips back so that the bar slides down the front of the thighs (photo a). He positions the body with the knees slightly bent, the back flat or slightly arched, and the chest up. The shoulders are over or slightly in front of the bar, and the eyes are focused straight ahead or slightly upward.

1. The athlete quickly and explosively performs triple extension in a jumping action while maintaining a flat-back position. The elbows are pointed out, and the athlete keeps the bar as close to the body as possible. He keeps the shoulders over the bar and the elbows extended for as long as possible.

2. When the full triple extension is reached, the athlete rapidly shrugs the shoulders upward with the elbows still fully extended. As the shoulders reach their highest elevation, the athlete flexes the elbows to begin pulling the body under the bar. He continues to pull with the arms high for as long as possible. Because of the explosive nature of this phase, the feet may lose contact with the floor. The torso is erect, and the head is tilted slightly back.

3. After the lower body has fully extended, the athlete pulls the body under the bar and rotates the arms around and under the bar while flexing the hips and knees into a quarter squat (photo b).

4. Once the arms are under the bar, the athlete lifts the elbows so that the upper arms are parallel to the floor. He racks the bar across the front of the clavicles and anterior deltoids. When the athlete catches the bar, the torso is nearly erect, the shoulders are slightly ahead of the buttocks, the head is in a neutral position, and the feet are flat.

5. When balanced, the athlete stands up by fully extending the hips and knees (photo c).

The athlete stands with the feet between hip- and shoulder-width apart; the toes are pointed forward or slightly outward. The athlete squats and grasps the bar with the hands slightly wider than the shoulders (and outside the knees) using a closed, pronated grip. He straightens the elbows and positions the body so the back is flat or slightly arched (photo a); the chest is up, the shoulders are over the bar, and the eyes are focused forward or slightly up.

1. The athlete forcefully extends the hips and knees to lift the bar, keeping the torso-to-floor angle constant by maintaining a flat-back position. He keeps the elbows fully extended and keeps the bar as close to the shins as possible.

2. As the bar rises to just above the knees, the athlete forcefully extends the hips and knees and also extends the ankles (plantar flexion). He keeps the bar as close to the body as possible. The athlete’s back remains flat, and the elbows are pointing out to the sides. The athlete keeps the shoulders over the bar and the elbows extended for as long as possible.

3. When the ankle, knee, and hip reach full extension (triple extension), the athlete shrugs the shoulders upward with the elbows still fully extended. As the shoulders reach their highest elevation, the athlete flexes the elbows to begin pulling the body under the bar. He continues pulling with the arms high as long as possible. The torso is erect, the head is erect or tilted slightly back, and the feet may lose contact with the floor (photo b). After the lower body has fully extended, the athlete pulls the body under the bar and rotates the arms around and under the bar. Simultaneously, he flexes the hips and knees to a quarter-squat position.

4. Once the arms are under the bar, the athlete lifts the elbows so that the upper arms are parallel to the floor. He racks the bar across the front of the clavicles and anterior deltoids. When the athlete catches the bar, the torso is nearly erect, the shoulders are slightly ahead of the buttocks, the head is in a neutral position, and the feet are flat.

5. After gaining control and balance, the athlete stands up by extending the hips and knees to a fully erect position (photo c).

This chapter provides information on three main types of resistance exercises: Olympic lifts, lower-body lifts, and upper-body lifts. Olympic lifts use large muscle groups and involve multiple body parts being worked at the same time. These exercises help an athlete develop coordination, strength, and power. In a given workout, Olympic lifts should be done first because performing these lifts correctly requires the most concentration and skill. Athletes who are not familiar with Olympic lifting should seek out an experienced lifting coach to ensure that they are performing the exercises safely.

Some athletes may not have access to a gym with an Olympic lifting platform, or they may prefer to train at home so they can avoid the time commitment required to regularly travel to a gym. Many of the upper- and lower-body exercises can be performed with dumbbells, which are relatively inexpensive to purchase. Many athletes purchase a flat bench and a set of adjustable dumbbells. The cost of these items is less than the cost of participating in one or two endurance races (especially if the items are purchased used), and the equipment will last a lifetime.

The snatch-grip hand placement on the bar is wider than it is for other exercises. To help an athlete estimate the proper width of the grip, have the athlete extend an arm laterally and parallel to the floor; then measure the distance from the edge of the knuckles of that arm (the athlete should clench the fist) to the outside edge of the opposite shoulder (see figure 6.1). Alternatively, the lifter’s grip width can be estimated by measuring the elbow-to-elbow distance when the upper arms are abducted directly out from the sides and parallel to the floor (see figure 6.2). This distance is the space between the hands when they are grasping the bar. If necessary, this spacing can be modified depending on shoulder flexibility and arm length. In this grip, the hands face backward in a pronated position.
  

Grips

Different types of grips are used for different exercises. Two basic positions are used for placing the hands on the bar. In the pronated position, the bar is gripped with the palm facing backward. A pronated grip is used for almost all exercises that require the weight to be lifted above the head. In the supinated hand position, the palm is facing forward when grasping the bar. When the thumb is wrapped around the fingers that are grasping the bar, this is referred to as a closed grip (see figure 6.3a). On the rare occasion when the bar is gripped with the thumb in line with the fingers, this is referred to as an open grip. An open grip is less secure than a closed grip and will increase the risk of accidents. For the Olympic lifts, a variation of the closed grip—called the hook grip (see figure 6.3b)—or a clean and jerk grip can be used to ensure optimal performance.

The following guidelines provide basic information that is essential for safe and productive resistance training. Experienced lifters may already know some of this information, but for beginner lifters, understanding these guidelines will be useful whenever they perform resistance training sessions in the weight room.

Technique

Lifters often need to lift a bar or dumbbells off the floor before getting into the starting position for an exercise (e.g., bent-over row, biceps curl, dumbbell flat or incline bench press or fly, upright row, barbell lying triceps extension, stiff-leg deadlift). To avoid excessive strain on the low back, athletes need to place the body in the correct position to lift the weight safely and effectively. Athletes can do this by following these guidelines:

 Use the correct stance in relation to the bar or dumbbells and properly grasp the bar or dumbbell handles.

 Place the feet between hip- and shoulder-width apart.

 Squat down behind the bar or between the dumbbells.

 If lifting a bar, position the bar close to the shins and over the balls of the feet, and grasp the bar with a closed grip that is shoulder-width (or slightly wider) apart.

 If lifting dumbbells, stand directly between them and grasp the handles with a closed grip and a neutral arm or hand position.

 Position the arms outside the knees with the elbows extended.

Before lifting a weight off the floor, athletes must place their body in the correct preparatory position. The following guidelines also describe how the body should be positioned immediately before the first repetition of a power exercise (e.g., snatch, power clean).

•  The back is flat or slightly arched.
•  The trapezius is relaxed and slightly stretched, the chest is held up and out, and the scapulae are held together.
•  The head is in line with the spine or slightly hyperextended.
•  Body weight is balanced between the middle and balls of the feet, but the heels are in contact with the floor.
•  The shoulders are over or slightly in front of the bar.
•  The eyes are focused straight ahead or slightly upward.

Moderate-work, moderate-duration workouts (aerobic workouts) are the simplest to execute. For most sports, athletes complete these workouts by simply exercising (e.g., riding or running) for anywhere from 45 to 90 minutes at aerobic intensity. The first 5 to 10 minutes and the last 5 to 10 minutes of these workouts should be used to warm up and cool down. For the warm-up, the athlete builds from easy to aerobic intensity; the athlete does the reverse for the cool-down.

Aerobic workouts are a conservative way to improve endurance. These workouts will boost the endurance of a relative beginner in endurance sport. Aerobic workouts are also effective in the early stages of the training year for most athletes. If an athlete is showing signs of heading toward underrecovery syndrome (i.e., consistent fatigue, poor workouts, reduced appetite, moodiness), performing some aerobic workouts instead of interval workouts will help the athlete maintain balance between workout stress and recovery. For most athletes, a good blend of interval workouts and aerobic workouts is the best complement to long workouts.

Designing training programs is both a science and an art. The science is the easy part. The art is the part that develops with experience. Beginner athletes and coaches need to keep in mind that each athlete is an individual and will react slightly differently when performing a given workout. Many variables may affect how an athlete responds to a training program. Three factors that should be taken into account are the athlete’s years of training, current stress levels, and chronological age.

Experience and research have shown that an athlete who has trained consistently will be able to withstand a greater level of training than an athlete who is just starting a training program. The more experienced athlete will usually be able to perform a greater amount of work without incurring negative side effects such as overtraining or inadequate recovery. The more experienced athlete will also be able to handle a greater amount of intensity than the novice athlete. Athletes must avoid falling into the “more is better” strategy of intensity training. The majority of training (as much as 100 percent for the beginning athlete) should be aerobic in nature; even the most experienced athletes should be doing 10 to 15 percent of their work at high intensity. If too much high-intensity work is performed, the athlete will not have adequate recovery. Many athletes—both novice and experienced—make the mistake of training too hard during the low-intensity workouts, which inhibits their ability to go as hard as they should for the higher-intensity work.

Many novice athletes and coaches forget that stress levels hamper an athlete’s ability to recover from training. Family, job, and relationships are all potential stressors, as is an athlete’s living situation, such as living with a noisy roommate. An athlete or coach needs to be realistic about everything that may affect training. The athlete who is starting a new job, is recently married, or has just moved across the country may respond to training differently than the young and single individual who has no responsibilities other than working and training for competition. The best training programs follow the science of periodized planning, but the athlete or coach should recognize that a plan may need to be adapted or changed depending on how the athlete responds.

Older athletes sometimes require additional rest or recovery in order to achieve the optimal training effect. Older athletes are more likely to have limitations due to previous injuries, aging factors (such as arthritis), disc degeneration, and decreased strength. This doesn’t mean that older athletes are unable to compete at high levels. It simply means that younger athletes may have a faster rate of recovery and a greater rate of improvement from training.

Long workouts are the most specific workouts that athletes can do. These workouts are also the best preparation for races. Because long workouts take up the most time and energy, athletes will typically do only one to three long workouts per week. Triathletes should do one for each discipline. Runners should generally do one long run each week. Cyclists and mountain bike racers can do two long workouts each week, one that is a competitive group ride and one that is a long ride done entirely at aerobic intensity.

The key to effective long workouts is that they challenge athletes to (1) learn to go longer and (2) learn to move at the intensity they will use in their peak races. Simply training without specific goals is not a productive use of time for a competitive athlete. Athletes will get much more out of long workouts that challenge them to move at intensities similar to those used in their peak races. It is unrealistic to expect an athlete to perform long runs at 9 minutes per mile and then race a marathon at 7 minutes per mile. Consider long workouts that include portions at race intensity to be the perfect “tempo workouts” or “pace workouts” to use with athletes. These workouts challenge the athletes to train at an intensity similar to that required for a race.

Athletes should be well rested when they begin a long workout. Therefore, easier workouts or a rest day should be scheduled for the day before a long workout. Long workouts should be completed on a course and in conditions similar to those for the athlete’s race. These workouts serve as practice races, so they provide the perfect opportunity to practice with race equipment.

Consider a triathlete training for a half Ironman. Long swims are the perfect chance to practice swimming a distance similar to the race distance—and at race intensity—in a wetsuit. This allows the athlete to get comfortable with the wetsuit, work out any kinks that may exist in the fit of the wetsuit, try a few different wetsuits if necessary, and practice swimming in the wetsuit as he will in races. Bricks (bike-run combination workouts) are a good chance to try out a new cycling position and experiment with equipment in general. The best strategy is usually to test things out in shorter workouts first, then in long workouts.

The distance for long workouts should progress as the training year progresses. Table 5.1 presents a sample long-run progression for a half marathon runner. This table shows long workouts for the 11 weeks before the athlete’s taper phase for her peak race.

Each long run is composed of portions to be run at aerobic intensity and portions to be run at race intensity. In week 7 of the progression, for example, the runner would perform a 10-mile (16 km) run. The first 5 miles (8 km) are at aerobic intensity, and the last 5 miles are at race intensity. Athletes should always do the aerobic miles first and the race miles last. This is especially important for running. If an athlete performs the race miles first, fatigue may prevent the athlete from completing the workout or may cause a change in running form that could lead to injury. This concept is less of a consideration in non-weight-bearing activities such as cycling or swimming. The runs should increase in difficulty in two ways as they progress: (1) They get longer, and (2) they involve more miles being run at race intensity. Both factors increase gradually to allow the runner to adapt and get better at running longer distances at race intensity. In the example, weeks 4 and 8 are rest weeks, so the athlete does not perform any long runs. After week 11, the runner would have a taper phase of 2 to 3 weeks leading into her race.

The cultures of most endurance sports have deep traditions of focusing on completing as many miles and hours as possible, regardless of the quality of the workouts—and even at the expense of quality. This leads to a real challenge for modern-day endurance athletes. With the many outside demands on athletes’ time and energy, athletes need time-efficient ways to train effectively that allow them to recover from their workouts and grow stronger. High-quality workouts enable athletes to get the most from the time and energy put into workouts. The benefit of high-quality workouts far exceeds the benefit of completing as many workouts as possible. Athletes should eliminate workouts that do not focus on quality.

In addition to the “more is better” mind-set in society and in the cultural histories of endurance sports, athletes may also feel bombarded with a sea of information on training methods that have accompanied developments in technology. Multitudes of complex training approaches are now available as well as high-tech gadgets and software to dissect and analyze (and overanalyze) training. But at the end of the day, developing endurance still comes down to doing workouts that apply stresses that challenge athletes to cover ground for extended distances as rapidly as they can.

Athletes should focus on simple workouts with clear objectives. Doing so frees athletes to work hard and enjoy their sport. This is the most direct path to success and excellence. To achieve that success and excellence, athletes should use three main endurance-building tools:

Long workouts. These workouts are the most specific, and as the training year advances, the workouts can progress to distances similar to an athlete’s peak races; in addition, significant portions of the workouts are completed at race intensity. Athletes cannot do in a race what they have not done in a workout (with a few exceptions), and long workouts prepare athletes most specifically for peak races. Not only do these workouts develop the exact physical abilities that are needed for racing, but they also aid tremendously in developing optimal mental abilities. Long workouts are also the ideal chance to practice and experiment with race nutrition and equipment outside of a race.

 Interval workouts. These high-work and moderate-duration workouts (also known as anaerobic workouts and anaerobic endurance workouts) last less than 1 hour and 30 minutes, which is typically the amount of time that an endurance athlete has available for working out on most days of the week. Interval workouts are potentially the most potent, but they also present the most stress on an athlete. As discussed in chapter 3, athletes should use a planned, systematic, and progressive overload in order to avoid overtraining (sometimes referred to as underrecovery syndrome). Many experienced endurance coaches and athletes will tell you that being slightly undertrained on race day is better than being overtrained.

 Aerobic workouts. These moderate-work and moderate-duration workouts (also known as aerobic workouts or aerobic endurance workouts) are conservative sessions designed to enhance endurance. Aerobic workouts include a cap or ceiling on intensity that keeps the work almost exclusively aerobic in nature. As a result, these workouts are less effective at developing endurance than interval workouts, but they are also easier to recover from. Blending the right amount of these two types of workouts (used along with long workouts) is part of the art of training.

Interval workouts are made up of higher-intensity work broken up by rest intervals. Both interval workouts (high work, moderate duration) and aerobic workouts (moderate work, moderate duration) can be done as intervals or as steady, uninterrupted periods of work. However, the term interval workouts is more commonly used for anaerobic workouts. That’s why the terms intervals and interval workouts are typically used synonymously with high-work workouts, and the term aerobic workouts is typically used synonymously with moderate-work workouts.

Various subclasses of workouts can be categorized within the three types of endurance workouts. This is particularly true of interval workouts, which include hill workouts (cycling and running), fartlek workouts, and interval workouts done on an indoor trainer (cycling), track (running), or treadmill (running).

Endurance sports typically require participants to traverse extended distances as rapidly as possible. These sports include running, cycling, swimming, triathlon, ultradistance events, and others. Sustaining a good pace in an endurance event and improving that pace require effective, dedicated training. This chapter explains how endurance athletes can properly stress their body during workouts, describes how athletes should treat their body between training sessions, and introduces key factors for achieving optimal stamina in a sport.

Among athletes, a lot of confusion exists about ergogenic aids. This confusion is often related to safety and efficacy concerns. Because ergogenic aids are not included in the category of macro- or micronutrients, people often think of them only as performance enhancing and for specific use in sport. Although studies have provided good data to support the performance- and recovery-enhancing effects of some ergogenic aids, a comprehensive review of the most popular supplements is beyond the scope of this chapter.

Excellent texts devoted to the topic of ergogenic aids are available, including Power Eating, Third Edition (2007) by Susan Kleiner with Maggie Greenwood-Robinson or Advanced Sports Nutrition, Second Edition (2013) by Dan Benardot (both published by Human Kinetics). Coaches and athletes interested in learning more about potential ergogenic aids should seek out these texts. However, athletes should use ergogenic aids under the close supervision of a qualified health professional and should make sure they have a clear understanding of the potential risks.

Most athletes welcome the off-season as a time of rest, recovery, and rejuvenation. However, this is also a time when many athletes make nutritional mistakes and gain unnecessary body fat. These mistakes can occur if an athlete does not continue to emphasize controlled intake of high-quality food. During the off-season cycle, the primary nutrition goal should be to control the amount of food eaten. Controlling blood sugar by eating lean protein and fiber-rich food (fruits and vegetables are preferred) is the main objective.

Additionally, most athletes do not follow a specific training plan during this cycle, even though they may think they do. Rather, they participate in unstructured exercise. Because of the unstructured training, products such as energy bars, gels, sports drinks, and powders are typically not necessary. Because of the lower energy requirements, the recommended daily intake of carbohydrate decreases to as low as 3 or 4 grams per kilogram of body weight; the emphasis should be mostly on fruits and vegetables and less on whole grains and healthier starches. Daily protein intake should range from 1.6 to 2.0 grams per kilogram of body weight. Daily fat intake should remain low at 0.8 to 1.0 grams per kilogram of body weight; the emphasis should be on omega-3 fats.


Fueling for Exercise Sessions
During the Transition or Off-Season Cycle



During this cycle, energy expenditure during training will be lower because training intensity and volume are low. The athlete usually doesn’t have specific goals for training improvement. The athlete should focus on being nourished and hydrated before exercise by eating a light, balanced meal or snack. During exercise, the athlete will probably not need more than 8 ounces (~237 ml) of water every 20 to 30 minutes. If needed, small amounts of sodium may be added to the water (500 milligrams of sodium per liter of water) to help the athlete maintain hydration status.

For postexercise nutrition, the athlete should simply focus on replenishing hydration stores by drinking 24 ounces (710 ml) of water (with at least 500 milligrams of sodium per liter of water) immediately after the workout. To enhance postworkout recovery, the athlete can eat a light snack or meal that is low in fat and includes a good source of carbohydrate and some lean protein.

For training sessions during the competitive cycle, proper fueling allows athletes to achieve optimal effectiveness in the workout and ensures adequate nutrient intake for the recovery process. The nutrient intake before a training session is designed to ensure that the athlete begins the session properly hydrated and with normal levels of muscle glycogen. During the session, the goal is to maintain fluid, electrolyte, and blood glucose levels. Nutrients consumed after the training session allow the athlete to replace fluid, electrolyte, and muscle glycogen stores. Postworkout nutrients also aid the body in recovery from the stress of the training session.





In this cycle, athletes need to prevent or minimize gastrointestinal (GI) distress during training and racing. In the previous discussion on fueling for training during the preparatory cycle, some recommendations were provided for avoiding GI distress, including not consuming high-fiber or high-protein foods and not drinking too much water. These recommendations also apply in the competitive phase. Athletes should rely on their experience during training sessions in the previous cycles to learn how their gut responds to various types and quantities of foods and sport nutrition products. These experiences should be carried over into this training cycle with the intent of topping off fluid, electrolyte, and carbohydrate stores before training.

Newer research has shown that consuming a large amount (144 grams) of carbohydrate per hour during exercise increases the body’s ability to oxidize (use) this fuel for energy, thus allowing the body to have a greater fuel supply. However, because of the very large carbohydrate intake needed to see these types of oxidation rates, some athletes may find that ingesting this much carbohydrate is simply not realistic. The fact that all of this research was conducted on cyclists should also be taken into consideration. Cyclists may be able to ingest a higher level of nutrition during exercise compared to other forms of exercise that require the use of larger amounts of muscle mass and that are weight bearing activities.

Based on current research, the recommendation for athletes in the competition cycle is to consume from 30 to 90 total grams of carbohydrate per hour during training sessions and competitions. Smaller athletes, especially females, should choose the lower quantities. Larger athletes may be able to consume amounts on the higher end, but they should do so in a race only after trying it with success during training sessions that simulate race intensity. As noted previously, the way that the body digests food at higher intensities can be very different from the way it does at lower intensities.

After a glycogen-depleting workout, athletes should follow the same nutrition guidelines described for the preparatory cycle. They should put special emphasis on consistency. Athletes need to treat their postworkout nutrition regimen as a part of their training session; they must be sure not to forget or delay this regimen.